On the use of solid 133Ba sources as surrogate for liquid 131I in SPECT/CT calibration: a European multi-centre evaluation.

INTRODUCTION: Commissioning, calibration, and quality control procedures for nuclear medicine imaging systems are typically performed using hollow containers filled with radionuclide solutions. This leads to multiple sources of uncertainty, many of which can be overcome by using traceable, sealed, long-lived surrogate sources containing a radionuclide of comparable energies and emission probabilities. This study presents the results of a quantitative SPECT/CT imaging comparison exercise performed within the MRTDosimetry consortium to assess the feasibility of using 133Ba as a surrogate for 131I imaging. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two sets of four traceable 133Ba sources were produced at two National Metrology Institutes and encapsulated in 3D-printed cylinders (volume range 1.68-107.4 mL). Corresponding hollow cylinders to be filled with liquid 131I and a mounting baseplate for repeatable positioning within a Jaszczak phantom were also produced. A quantitative SPECT/CT imaging comparison exercise was conducted between seven members of the consortium (eight SPECT/CT systems from two major vendors) based on a standardised protocol. Each site had to perform three measurements with the two sets of 133Ba sources and liquid 131I. RESULTS: As anticipated, the 131I pseudo-image calibration factors (cps/MBq) were higher than those for 133Ba for all reconstructions and systems. A site-specific cross-calibration reduced the performance differences between both radionuclides with respect to a cross-calibration based on the ratio of emission probabilities from a median of 12-1.5%. The site-specific cross-calibration method also showed agreement between 133Ba and 131I for all cylinder volumes, which highlights the potential use of 133Ba sources to calculate recovery coefficients for partial volume correction. CONCLUSION: This comparison exercise demonstrated that traceable solid 133Ba sources can be used as surrogate for liquid 131I imaging. The use of solid surrogate sources could solve the radiation protection problem inherent in the preparation of phantoms with 131I liquid activity solutions as well as reduce the measurement uncertainties in the activity. This is particularly relevant for stability measurements, which have to be carried out at regular intervals.

Safety injections of nuclear medicine radiotracers: towards a new modality for a real-time detection of extravasation events and 18F-FDG SUV data correction.

BACKGROUND: 18F-FDG PET/CT imaging allows to study oncological patients and their relative diagnosis through the standardised uptake value (SUV) evaluation. During radiopharmaceutical injection, an extravasation event may occur, making the SUV value less accurate and possibly leading to severe tissue damage. The study aimed to propose a new technique to monitor and manage these events, to provide an early evaluation and correction to the estimated SUV value through a SUV correction coefficient. METHODS: A cohort of 70 patients undergoing 18F- FDG PET/CT examinations was enrolled. Two portable detectors were secured on the patients' arms. The dose-rate (DR) time curves on the injected DRin and contralateral DRcon arm were acquired during the first 10 min of injection. Such data were processed to calculate the parameters ΔpinNOR = (DRinmax- DRinmean)/DRinmax and ΔRt = (DRin(t) - DRcon(t)), where DRinmax is the maximum DR value, DRinmean is the average DR value in the injected arm. OLINDA software allowed dosimetric estimation of the dose in the extravasation region. The estimated residual activity in the extravasation site allowed the evaluation of the SUV's correction value and to define an SUV correction coefficient. RESULTS: Four cases of extravasations were identified for which ΔRt [(390 ± 26) µSv/h], while ΔRt [(150 ± 22) µSv/h] for abnormal and ΔRt [(24 ± 11) µSv/h] for normal cases. The ΔpinNOR showed an average value of (0.44 ± 0.05) for extravasation cases and an average value of (0.91 ± 0.06) and (0.77 ± 0.23) in normal and abnormal classes, respectively. The percentage of SUV reduction (SUV%CR) ranges between 0.3% and 6%. The calculated self-tissue dose values range from 0.027 to 0.573 Gy, according to the segmentation modality. A similar correlation between the inverse of ΔpinNOR and the normalised ΔRt with the SUV correction coefficient was found. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed metrics allowed to characterised the extravasation events in the first few minutes after the injection, providing an early SUV correction when necessary. We also assume that the characterisation of the DR-time curve of the injection arm is sufficient for the detection of extravasation events. Further validation of these hypotheses and key metrics is recommended in larger cohorts.

Predictive and Prognostic Role of Pre-Therapy and Interim 68Ga-DOTATOC PET/CT Parameters in Metastatic Advanced Neuroendocrine Tumor Patients Treated with PRRT.

Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) is an effective therapeutic option in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumor (NET). However, PRRT fails in about 15-30% of cases. Identification of biomarkers predicting the response to PRRT is essential for treatment tailoring. We aimed to evaluate the predictive and prognostic role of semiquantitative and volumetric parameters obtained from the 68Ga-DOTATOC PET/CT before therapy (bPET) and after two cycles of PRRT (iPET). A total of 46 patients were included in this retrospective analysis. The primary tumor was 78% gastroenteropancreatic (GEP), 13% broncho-pulmonary and 9% of unknown origin. 35 patients (76.1%) with stable disease or partial response after PRRT were classified as responders and 11 (23.9%) as non-responders. Logistic regression analysis identified that baseline total volume (bTV) was associated with therapy outcome (OR 1.17; 95%CI 1.02-1.32; p = 0.02). No significant association with PRRT response was observed for other variables. High bTV was confirmed as the only variable independently associated with OS (HR 12.76, 95%CI 1.53-107, p = 0.01). In conclusion, high bTV is a negative predictor for PRRT response and is associated with worse OS rates. Early iPET during PRRT apparently does not provide information useful to change the management of NET patients.

A multicentre and multi-national evaluation of the accuracy of quantitative Lu-177 SPECT/CT imaging performed within the MRTDosimetry project.

PURPOSE: Patient-specific dosimetry is required to ensure the safety of molecular radiotherapy and to predict response. Dosimetry involves several steps, the first of which is the determination of the activity of the radiopharmaceutical taken up by an organ/lesion over time. As uncertainties propagate along each of the subsequent steps (integration of the time-activity curve, absorbed dose calculation), establishing a reliable activity quantification is essential. The MRTDosimetry project was a European initiative to bring together expertise in metrology and nuclear medicine research, with one main goal of standardizing quantitative 177Lu SPECT/CT imaging based on a calibration protocol developed and tested in a multicentre inter-comparison. This study presents the setup and results of this comparison exercise. METHODS: The inter-comparison included nine SPECT/CT systems. Each site performed a set of three measurements with the same setup (system, acquisition and reconstruction): (1) Determination of an image calibration for conversion from counts to activity concentration (large cylinder phantom), (2) determination of recovery coefficients for partial volume correction (IEC NEMA PET body phantom with sphere inserts), (3) validation of the established quantitative imaging setup using a 3D printed two-organ phantom (ICRP110-based kidney and spleen). In contrast to previous efforts, traceability of the activity measurement was required for each participant, and all participants were asked to calculate uncertainties for their SPECT-based activities. RESULTS: Similar combinations of imaging system and reconstruction lead to similar image calibration factors. The activity ratio results of the anthropomorphic phantom validation demonstrate significant harmonization of quantitative imaging performance between the sites with all sites falling within one standard deviation of the mean values for all inserts. Activity recovery was underestimated for total kidney, spleen, and kidney cortex, while it was overestimated for the medulla. CONCLUSION: This international comparison exercise demonstrates that harmonization of quantitative SPECT/CT is feasible when following very specific instructions of a dedicated calibration protocol, as developed within the MRTDosimetry project. While quantitative imaging performance demonstrates significant harmonization, an over- and underestimation of the activity recovery highlights the limitations of any partial volume correction in the presence of spill-in and spill-out between two adjacent volumes of interests.

How direct measurements of worker eyes with a Scheimpflug camera can affect lensdose coefficients in interventional radiology.

The 2013/59/Euratom Directive reduced the occupational exposure limits for the lens. Since it has become crucial to estimate the dose absorbed by the lens, we have studied the individual variability of exposed workers' ocular conformations with respect to the data estimated from their personal dosimetry. The anterior eye conformations of 45 exposed workers were acquired using Scheimpflug imaging and classified according to their sight conditions (emmetropia, myopia or hypermetropia). Three eye models were computed, with two lens reconstructions, and implemented in an interventional radiology scenario using Monte Carlo code. The models were dosimetrically analysed by simulating setup A, a theoretical monoenergetic and isotropic photon source (10-150 keV) and setup B, a more realistic interventional setting with an angiographic x-ray unit (50, 75, 100 kV peak). Scheimpflug imaging provided an average anterior chamber depth of (6.4 ± 0.5) mm and a lens depth of (3.9 ± 0.3) mm, together with a reconstructed equatorial lens length of (7.1-10.1) mm. Using these data for model reconstruction, dose coefficients (DCs) were simulated for all ocular structures. Regardless of the eye model used, the DCs showed a similar trend with radiation energy, which highlighted that for the same energy and setup, no significant dependence on ocular morphology and workers' visual conditions was observed. The maximum difference obtained did not exceed 1% for all eye models or structures analysed. Therefore, the individual variabilities of worker ocular anatomy do not require any additional correction, compared to the personal dosimetry data measured with a dedicated lens dosimeter. To estimate the dose absorbed by the other eye structures, it is, instead, essential to know the spectrum of the source that has generated the irradiation, since there are differences between monoenergetic sources and more realistic angiographic units.

DNA damage in lens epithelial cells exposed to occupationally-relevant X-ray doses and role in cataract formation.

The current framework of radiological protection of occupational exposed medical workers reduced the eye-lens equivalent dose limit from 150 to 20 mSv per year requiring an accurate dosimetric evaluation and an increase understanding of radiation induced effects on Lens cells considering the typical scenario of occupational exposed medical operators. Indeed, it is widely accepted that genomic damage of Lens epithelial cells (LEC) is a key mechanism of cataractogenesis. However, the relationship between apoptosis and cataractogenesis is still controversial. In this study biological and physical data are combined to improve the understanding of radiation induced effects on LEC. To characterize the occupational exposure of medical workers during angiographic procedures an INNOVA 4100 (General Electric Healthcare) equipment was used (scenario A). Additional experiments were conducted using a research tube (scenario B). For both scenarios, the frequencies of binucleated cells, micronuclei, p21-positive cells were assessed with different doses and dose rates. A Monte-Carlo study was conducted using a model for the photon generation with the X-ray tubes and with the Petri dishes considering the two different scenarios (A and B) to reproduce the experimental conditions and validate the irradiation setups to the cells. The simulation results have been tallied using the Monte Carlo code MCNP6. The spectral characteristics of the different X-ray beams have been estimated. All irradiated samples showed frequencies of micronuclei and p21-positive cells higher than the unirradiated controls. Differences in frequencies increased with the delivered dose measured with Gafchromic films XR-RV3. The spectrum incident on eye lens and Petri, as estimated with MCNP6, was in good agreement in the scenario A (confirming the experimental setup), while the mean energy spectrum was higher in the scenario B. Nevertheless, the response of LEC seemed mainly related to the measured absorbed dose. No effects on viability were detected. Our results support the hypothesis that apoptosis is not responsible for cataract induced by low doses of X-ray (i.e. 25 mGy) while the induction of transient p21 may interfere with the disassembly of the nuclear envelop in differentiating LEC, leading to cataract formation. Further studies are needed to better clarify the relationship we suggested between DNA damage, transient p21 induction and the inability of LEC enucleation.

Uncertainty analysis of tumour absorbed dose calculations in molecular radiotherapy.

BACKGROUND: Internal dosimetry evaluation consists of a multi-step process ranging from imaging acquisition to absorbed dose calculations. Assessment of uncertainty is complicated and, for that reason, it is commonly ignored in clinical routine. However, it is essential for adequate interpretation of the results. Recently, the EANM published a practical guidance on uncertainty analysis for molecular radiotherapy based on the application of the law of propagation of uncertainty. In this study, we investigated the overall uncertainty on a sample of a patient following the EANM guidelines. The aim of this study was to provide an indication of the typical uncertainties that may be expected from performing dosimetry, to determine parameters that have the greatest effect on the accuracy of calculations and to consider the potential improvements that could be made if these effects were reduced. RESULTS: Absorbed doses and the relative uncertainties were calculated for a sample of 49 patients and a total of 154 tumours. A wide range of relative absorbed dose uncertainty values was observed (14-102%). Uncertainties associated with each quantity along the absorbed dose calculation chain (i.e. volume, recovery coefficient, calibration factor, activity, time-activity curve fitting, time-integrated activity and absorbed dose) were estimated. An equation was derived to describe the relationship between the uncertainty in the absorbed dose and the volume. The largest source of error was the VOI delineation. By postulating different values of FWHM, the impact of the imaging system spatial resolution on the uncertainties was investigated. DISCUSSION: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first analysis of uncertainty in molecular radiotherapy based on a cohort of clinical cases. Wide inter-lesion variability of absorbed dose uncertainty was observed. Hence, a proper assessment of the uncertainties associated with the calculations should be considered as a basic scientific standard. A model for a quick estimate of uncertainty without implementing the entire error propagation schema, which may be useful in clinical practice, was presented. Ameliorating spatial resolution may be in future the key factor for accurate absorbed dose assessment.

Comparison of different calculation techniques for absorbed dose assessment in patient specific peptide receptor radionuclide therapy.

AIM: The present work concerns the comparison of the performances of three systems for dosimetry in RPT that use different techniques for absorbed dose calculation (organ-level dosimetry, voxel-level dose kernel convolution and Monte Carlo simulations). The aim was to assess the importance of the choice of the most adequate calculation modality, providing recommendations about the choice of the computation tool. METHODS: The performances were evaluated both on phantoms and patients in a multi-level approach. Different phantoms filled with a 177Lu-radioactive solution were used: a homogeneous cylindrical phantom, a phantom with organ-shaped inserts and two cylindrical phantoms with inserts different for shape and volume. A total of 70 patients with NETs treated by PRRT with 177Lu-DOTATOC were retrospectively analysed. RESULTS: The comparisons were performed mainly between the mean values of the absorbed dose in the regions of interest. A general better agreement was obtained between Dose kernel convolution and Monte Carlo simulations results rather than between either of these two and organ-level dosimetry, both for phantoms and patients. Phantoms measurements also showed the discrepancies mainly depend on the geometry of the inserts (e.g. shape and volume). For patients, differences were more pronounced than phantoms and higher inter/intra patient variability was observed. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that voxel-level techniques for dosimetry calculation are potentially more accurate and personalized than organ-level methods. In particular, a voxel-convolution method provides good results in a short time of calculation, while Monte Carlo based computation should be conducted with very fast calculation systems for a possible use in clinics, despite its intrinsic higher accuracy. Attention to the calculation modality is recommended in case of clinical regions of interest with irregular shape and far from spherical geometry, in which Monte Carlo seems to be more accurate than voxel-convolution methods.

Radiotherapy Planning and Molecular Imaging in Lung Cancer.

INTRODUCTION: In patients suitable for radical chemoradiotherapy for lung cancer, 18F-FDGPET/ CT is a proposed management to improve the accuracy of high dose radiotherapy. However, there is a high rate of locoregional failure in patients with locally advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), probably due to the fact that standard dosing may not be effective in all patients. The aim of the present review was to address some criticisms associated with the radiotherapy image-guided in NSCLC. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A systematic literature search was conducted. Only published articles that met the following criteria were included: articles, only original papers, radiopharmaceutical ([18F]FDG and any tracer other than [18F]FDG), target, only specific for lung cancer radiotherapy planning, and experimental design (eventually "in vitro" studies were excluded). Peer-reviewed indexed journals, regardless of publication status (published, ahead of print, in press, etc.) were included. Reviews, case reports, abstracts, editorials, poster presentations, and publications in languages other than English were excluded. The decision to include or exclude an article was made by consensus and any disagreement was resolved through discussion. RESULTS: Hundred eligible full-text articles were assessed. Diverse information is now available in the literature about the role of FDG and new alternative radiopharmaceuticals for the planning of radiotherapy in NSCLC. In particular, the role of alternative technologies for the segmentation of FDG uptake is essential, although indeterminate for RT planning. The pros and cons of the available techniques have been extensively reported. CONCLUSION: PET/CT has a central place in the planning of radiotherapy for lung cancer and, in particular, for NSCLC assuming a substantial role in the delineation of tumor volume. The development of new radiopharmaceuticals can help overcome the problems related to the disadvantage of FDG to accumulate also in activated inflammatory cells, thus improving tumor characterization and providing new prognostic biomarkers.

68Ga-DOTATOC PET/CT-Based Radiomic Analysis and PRRT Outcome: A Preliminary Evaluation Based on an Exploratory Radiomic Analysis on Two Patients.

Aim: This work aims to evaluate whether the radiomic features extracted by 68Ga-DOTATOC-PET/CT of two patients are associated with the response to peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) in patients affected by neuroendocrine tumor (NET). Methods: This is a pilot report in two NET patients who experienced a discordant response to PRRT (responder vs. non-responder) according to RECIST1.1. The patients presented with liver metastasis from the rectum and pancreas G3-NET, respectively. Whole-body total-lesion somatostatin receptor-expression (TLSREwb-50) and somatostatin receptor-expressing tumor volume (SRETV wb-50) were obtained in pre- and post-PRRT PET/CT. Radiomic analysis was performed, extracting 38 radiomic features (RFs) from the patients' lesions. The Mann-Whitney test was used to compare RFs in the responder patient vs. the non-responder patient. Pearson correlation and principal component analysis (PCA) were used to evaluate the correlation and independence of the different RFs. Results: TLSREwb-50 and SRETVwb-50 modifications correlate with RECIST1.1 response. A total of 28 RFs extracted on pre-therapy PET/CT showed significant differences between the two patients in the Mann-Whitney test (p < 0.05). A total of seven second-order features, with poor correlation with SUVmax and PET volume, were identified by the Pearson correlation matrix. Finally, the first two PCA principal components explain 83.8% of total variance. Conclusion: TLSREwb-50 and SRETVwb-50 are parameters that might be used to predict and to assess the PET response to PRRT. RFs might have a role in defining inter-patient heterogeneity and in the prediction of therapy response. It is important to implement future studies with larger and more homogeneous patient populations to confirm the efficacy of these biomarkers.

Texture analysis and multiple-instance learning for the classification of malignant lymphomas.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Malignant lymphomas are cancers of the immune system and are characterized by enlarged lymph nodes that typically spread across many different sites. Many different histological subtypes exist, whose diagnosis is typically based on sampling (biopsy) of a single tumor site, whereas total body examinations with computed tomography and positron emission tomography, though not diagnostic, are able to provide a comprehensive picture of the patient. In this work, we exploit a data-driven approach based on multiple-instance learning algorithms and texture analysis features extracted from positron emission tomography, to predict differential diagnosis of the main malignant lymphomas subtypes. METHODS: We exploit a multiple-instance learning setting where support vector machines and random forests are used as classifiers both at the level of single VOIs (instances) and at the level of patients (bags). We present results on two datasets comprising patients that suffer from four different types of malignant lymphomas, namely diffuse large B cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and mantle cell lymphoma. RESULTS: Despite the complexity of the task, experimental results show that, with sufficient data samples, some cancer subtypes, such as the Hodgkin's lymphoma, can be identified from texture information: in particular, we achieve a 97.0% of sensitivity (recall) and a 94.1% of predictive positive value (precision) on a dataset that consists in 60 patients. CONCLUSIONS: The presented study indicates that texture analysis features extracted from positron emission tomography, combined with multiple-instance machine learning algorithms, can be discriminating for different malignant lymphomas subtypes.

Partial volume effect of SPECT images in PRRT with 177Lu labelled somatostatin analogues: A practical solution.

BACKGROUND: At present activity quantification is one of the most critical step in dosimetry calculation, and Partial Volume Effect (PVE) one of the most important source of error. In recent years models based upon phantoms that incorporate hot spheres have been used to establish recovery models. In this context the goal of this study was to point out the most critical issues related to PVE and to establish a model closer to a biological imaging environment. METHODS: Two different phantoms, filled with a 177Lu solution, were used to obtain the PVE Recovery Coefficients (RCs): a phantom with spherical inserts and a phantom with organ-shaped inserts. Two additional phantoms with inserts of various geometrical shapes and an anthropomorphic phantom were acquired to compare the real activities to predicted values after PVE correction. RESULTS: The RCs versus volume of the inserts produced two different curves, one for the spheres and one for the organs. After PVE correction, accuracy on activity quantification averaged over all inserts of three test phantoms passed from -26% to 1.3% (from 26% to 10% for absolute values). CONCLUSION: RCs is a simple method for PVE correction easily applicable in clinical routine. The use of two different models for organs and lesions has permitted to closely mimic the situation in a living subject. A marked improvement in the quantification of activity was observed when PVE correction was adopted, even if further investigations should be performed for more accurate models of PVE corrections.

Effect of image registration on 3D absorbed dose calculations in 177Lu-DOTATOC peptide receptor radionuclide therapy.

Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy (PRRT) is an effective MRT (molecular radiotherapy) treatment, which consists of multiple administrations of a radiopharmaceutical labelled with 177Lu or 90Y. Through sequential functional imaging a patient specific 3D dosimetry can be derived. Multiple scans should be previously co-registered to allow accurate absorbed dose calculations. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the impact of image registration algorithms on 3D absorbed dose calculation. A cohort of patients was extracted from the database of a clinical trial in PRRT. They were administered with a single administration of 177Lu-DOTATOC. All patients underwent 5 SPECT/CT sequential scans at 1 h, 4 h, 24 h, 40 h, 70 h post-injection that were subsequently registered using rigid and deformable algorithms. A similarity index was calculated to compare rigid and deformable registration algorithms. 3D absorbed dose calculation was carried out with the Raydose Monte Carlo code. The similarity analysis demonstrated the superiority of the deformable registrations (p < .001). Average absorbed dose to the kidneys calculated using rigid image registration was consistently lower than the average absorbed dose calculated using the deformable algorithm (90% of cases), with percentage differences in the range [-19; +4]%. Absorbed dose to lesions were also consistently lower (90% of cases) when calculated with rigid image registration with absorbed dose differences in the range [-67.2; 100.7]%. Deformable image registration had a significant role in calculating 3D absorbed dose to organs or lesions with volumes smaller than 100 mL. Image based 3D dosimetry for 177Lu-DOTATOC PRRT is significantly affected by the type of algorithm used to register sequential SPECT/CT scans.

Added diagnostic value of respiratory-gated 4D 18F-FDG PET/CT in the detection of liver lesions: a multicenter study.

PURPOSE: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the added diagnostic value of respiratory-gated 4D18F-FDG PET/CT in liver lesion detection and characterization in a European multicenter retrospective study. METHODS: Fifty-six oncological patients (29 males and 27 females, mean age, 61.2 ± 11.2 years) from five European centers, submitted to standard 3D-PET/CT and liver 4D-PET/CT were retrospectively evaluated. Based on visual analysis, liver PET/CT findings were scored as positive, negative, or equivocal both in 3D and 4D PET/CT. The impact of 4D-PET/CT on the confidence in classifying liver lesions was assessed. PET/CT findings were compared to histology and clinical follow-up as standard reference and diagnostic accuracy was calculated for both techniques. At semi-quantitative analysis, SUVmax was calculated for each detected lesion in 3D and 4D-PET/CT. RESULTS: Overall, 72 liver lesions were considered for the analysis. Based on visual analysis in 3D-PET/CT, 32/72 (44.4%) lesions were considered positive, 21/72 (29.2%) negative, and 19/72 (26.4%) equivocal, while in 4D-PET/CT 48/72 (66.7%) lesions were defined positive, 23/72 (31.9%) negative, and 1/72 (1.4%) equivocal. 4D-PET/CT findings increased the confidence in lesion definition in 37/72 lesions (51.4%). Considering 3D equivocal lesions as positive, sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy were 88.9, 70.0, and 83.1%, respectively, while the same figures were 67.7, 90.0, and 73.8% if 3D equivocal findings were included as negative. 4D-PET/CT sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy were 97.8, 90.0, and 95.4%, respectively, considering equivocal lesions as positive and 95.6, 90.0, and 93.8% considering equivocal lesions as negative. The SUVmax of the liver lesions in 4D-PET (mean ± SD, 6.9 ± 3.2) was significantly higher (p < 0.001) than SUVmax in 3D-PET (mean ± SD, 5.2 ± 2.3). CONCLUSIONS: Respiratory-gated PET/CT technique is a valuable clinical tool in diagnosing liver lesions, reducing 3D undetermined findings, improving diagnostic accuracy, and confidence in reporting. 4D-PET/CT also improved the quantification of SUVmax of liver lesions.

Labelling of 90Y- and 177Lu-DOTA-Bioconjugates for Targeted Radionuclide Therapy: A Comparison among Manual, Semiautomated, and Fully Automated Synthesis.

In spite of the hazard due to the radiation exposure, preparation of 90Y- and 177Lu-labelled radiopharmaceuticals is still mainly performed using manual procedures. In the present study the performance of a commercial automatic synthesizer based on disposable cassettes for the labelling of 177Lu- and 90Y-DOTA-conjugated biomolecules (namely, DOTATOC and PSMA-617) was evaluated and compared to a manual and a semiautomated approach. The dose exposure of the operators was evaluated as well. More than 300 clinical preparations of both 90Y- and 177Lu-labelled radiopharmaceuticals have been performed using the three different methods. The mean radiochemical yields for 90Y-DOTATOC were 96.2 ± 4.9%, 90.3 ± 5.6%, and 82.0 ± 8.4%, while for 177Lu-DOTATOC they were 98.3% ± 0.6, 90.8% ± 8.3, and 83.1 ± 5.7% when manual, semiautomated, and automated approaches were used, respectively. The mean doses on the whole hands for yttrium-90 preparations were 0.15 ± 0.4 mSv/GBq, 0.04 ± 0.1 mSv/GBq, and 0.11 ± 0.3 mSv/GBq for manual, semiautomated, and automated synthesis, respectively, and for lutetium-177 preparations, they were 0.02 ± 0.008 mSv/GBq, 0.01 ± 0.03 mSv/GBq, and 0.01 ± 0.02 mSv/GBq, respectively. In conclusion, the automated approach guaranteed reliable and reproducible preparations of pharmaceutical grade therapeutic radiopharmaceuticals in a decent RCY. The radiation exposure of the operators remained comparable to the manual approach mainly due to the fact that a dedicated shielding was still not available for the system.

18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomographic scan in solid-type p-stage-I pulmonary adenocarcinomas: what can produce false-negative results?

Objective: False-negative (FN) uptake of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) can be divided into those cases related to technological limitations of positron emission tomography (PET) and those related to inherent properties of neoplasms. Our goal was to clarify possible factors causing FN PET results in patients with solid-type pulmonary adenocarcinomas (PAs). Methods: From January 2007 to December 2014, of the 255 patients with p-stage-1 non-small-cell lung cancer observed and treated (surgically) in our institution, we retrospectively reviewed the PET/computed tomography (CT) records, the clinical information, the preoperative thin-section CT images, and the pathological features [classified by the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer/American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society (IASLC/ATS/ERS) subtyping criteria] of 94 consecutive solid-type p-stage-1 PAs. Univariable and multivariable logistic analyses were used to identify and weigh the independent predictors of the PET findings using the following variables: body weight, blood glucose level, tumour size, tumour location, and histological classification. Results: There were 58 men and 36 women (mean age = 68.7 ± 8.9 years, range 42-85). Considering the maximum standardized uptake value (SUVmax) ≥ 2.5 as a 'PET-positive' result, 77 lesions (81.9%) proved PET positive and 17 lesions (18.1%), PET negative (with SUVmax < 2.5). Overall, the median SUVmax value was 5.7 [interquartile range (IQR) 2.8-10.3]. Higher SUVmax values ( P < 0.001) were observed in those PAs larger than 2 cm in their major axis (median SUVmax = 9.0; IQR 4.6-14.6); in PAs < 2 cm, the median SUVmax was 4.1; IQR 2.2-5.9. When clustering the cohort in two histological classes (class A, colloid/mucinous/lepidic versus class B, micropapillary/solid/acinar/papillary), the radiometabolic patterns were significantly different (median SUVmax = 2.8; IQR 1.7-4.9 in class A vs median = 7.4 IQR 4.5-13.9 in class B, P < 0.001). Significant PET FN rates were reported in (i) PAs measuring < 2 cm in their major axis (27.9%), (ii) lesions located in the lower zones of the lung (31.0%), and (iii) class A tumours (37.5%). In the multivariable logistic analysis, histological type (IASLC/ATS/ERS aggregated clusters) proved to be the only independent relevant factor for determining whether PET results were negative or positive (OR:7.23, 95% CI: 2.05-25.43, P = 0.002). Conclusions: The IASLC/ATS/ERS pattern significantly influences FDG uptake in solid-type p-stage-1 PAs. The fact that colloid/mucinous/lepidic adenocarcinomas have a notable tendency to produce negative findings on PET scans warrants particular attention.

Therapeutic schemes in 177Lu and 90Y-PRRT: radiobiological considerations.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this work is to implement a radiobiological model to compare different treatment schedules for Peptide Receptor Radionuclide Therapy (PRRT) with 177Lu and 90Y. The principal radiobiological quantities were studied as a function of radionuclides, fractionation schemes, activity distribution in kidneys and tumor radiosensitivity. METHODS: Clinical data were used to derive representative absorbed doses for several treatment schemes for 177Lu-PRRT and for 90Y-PRRT and considered as input data for the radiobiological model. Both uniform and non-uniform activity distributions were considered for kidneys and cortex; for tumors a possible uptake reduction after each cycle and inter-patient radiosensitivity variability were investigated. Normal-Tissue-Complication-Probability (NTCP) and Tumor-Control-Probability (TCP) were evaluated. RESULTS: Hyper-cycling has a limited advantage in terms of BED reduction on kidneys for 177Lu, while for 90Y the effect is sizable and helps in reducing the NTCP. For all 177Lu-schemes the renal toxicity risk is negligible while for some 90Y-schemes the NTCP is not null. In case of tumor uptake reduction with cycles the treatment efficacy is reduced with a BED loss up to 46%. The TCP decreases when assuming normally-distributed tumor radiosensitivity values. CONCLUSIONS: This paper discusses how the combination of dosimetry and radiobiological modeling may help in exploring the link between the treatment schedule and the potential clinical outcome. The results highlight the capability of model to reproduce the available clinical data and provide useful qualitative information. Further investigation on dose distribution and dose uptake reduction with accurate clinical data is needed to progress in this field.

The Italian multicentre dosimetric study for lesion dosimetry in 223Ra therapy of bone metastases: Calibration protocol of gamma cameras and patient eligibility criteria.

PURPOSE: The aims of this work were to explore patient eligibility criteria for dosimetric studies in 223Ra therapy and evaluate the effects of differences in gamma camera calibration procedures into activity quantification. METHODS: Calibrations with 223Ra were performed with four gamma cameras (3/8-inch crystal) acquiring planar static images with double-peak (82 and 154keV, 20% wide) and MEGP collimator. The sensitivity was measured in air by varying activity, source-detector distance, and source diameter. Transmission curves were measured for attenuation/scatter correction with the pseudo-extrapolation number method, varying the experimental setup. 223Ra images of twenty-five patients (69 lesions) were acquired to study the lesions visibility. Univariate ROC analysis was performed considering visible/non visible lesions on 223Ra images as true positive/true negative group, and using as score value the lesion/soft tissue contrast ratio (CR) derived from 99mTc-MDP WB scan. RESULTS: Sensitivity was nearly constant varying activity and distance (maximum s.d.=2%). Partial volume effects were negligible for object area ⩾960mm2. Transmission curve measurements are affected by experimental setup and source size, leading to activity quantification errors up to 20%. The ROC analysis yielded an AUC of 0.972 and an optimal threshold of CR of 10, corresponding to an accuracy of 92%. CONCLUSION: The minimum calibration protocol requires sensitivity and transmission curve measurements varying the object size, performing a careful procedure standardisation. Lesions with 99mTc-MDP CR higher than 10, not overlapping the GI tract, are generally visible on 223Ra images acquired at 24h after the administration, and possibly eligible for dosimetric studies.

Skin dose saving of the staff in 90Y/177Lu peptide receptor radionuclide therapy with the automatic dose dispenser.

OBJECTIVE: When handling Y-labelled and Lu-labelled radiopharmaceuticals, skin exposure is mainly due to ß-particles. This study aimed to investigate the equivalent dose saving of the staff when changing from an essentially manual radiolabelling procedure to an automatic dose dispenser (ADD). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The chemist and physician were asked to wear thermoluminescence dosimeters on their fingertips to evaluate the quantity of Hp(0.07) on the skin. Data collected were divided into two groups: before introducing ADD (no ADD) and after introducing ADD. RESULTS: For the chemist, the mean values (95th percentile) of Hp(0.07) for no ADD and ADD are 0.030 (0.099) and 0.019 (0.076) mSv/GBq, respectively, for Y, and 0.022 (0.037) and 0.007 (0.023) mSv/GBq, respectively, for Lu. The reduction for ADD was significant (t-test with P<0.05) for both isotopes. The relative differences before and after ADD collected for every finger were treated using the Wilcoxon test, proving a significantly higher reduction in extremity dose to each fingertip for Lu than for Y (P<0.05). For the medical staff, the mean values of Hp(0.07) (95th percentile) for no ADD and ADD are 0.021 (0.0762) and 0.0143 (0.0565) mSv/GBq, respectively, for Y, and 0.0011 (0.00196) and 0.0009 (0.00263) mSv/GBq, respectively, for Lu. The t-test provided a P-value less than 0.05 for both isotopes, making the difference between ADD and no ADD significant. CONCLUSION: ADD positively affects the dose saving of the chemist in handling both isotopes. For the medical staff not directly involved with the introduction of the ADD system, the analysis shows a learning curve of the workers over a 5-year period. Specific devices and procedures allow staff skin dose to be limited.

The (68)Ge phantom-based FDG-PET site qualification program for clinical trials adopted by FIL (Italian Foundation on Lymphoma).

PURPOSE: The quantitative assessment of Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans using standardized uptake value and derived parameters proved to be superior to traditional qualitative assessment in several retrospective or mono-centric prospective reports. Since different scanners give different quantitative readings, a program for clinical trial qualification (CTQ) is mandatory to guarantee a reliable and reproducible use of quantitative PET in prospective multi-centre clinical trials and in every-day clinical life. METHODS: We set up, under the auspices of Italian Foundation on Lymphoma (FIL), a CTQ program consisting of the PET/CT scan acquisition and analysis of (18)F and (68)Ge NEMA/IEC image quality phantoms for the reduction of inter-scanner variability. Variability was estimated on background activity concentration (BAC) and sphere to background ratio (SBR). RESULTS: The use of a (68)Ge phantom allowed reducing the inter-scanner variability among different scanners from 74.0% to 20.5% in BAC and from 63.3% to 17.4% in SBR compared to using the (18)F phantom. The CTQ criteria were fulfilled at first round in 100% and 28% of PET scanners with (68)Ge and (18)F respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The (68)Ge phantom proved a reliable tool for PET scanner qualification, able to significantly reduce the potential sources of error while increasing the reproducibility of PET derived quantitative parameter measurement.